Role of the Roman Imperial Cult During the Augustan Age

The imperial cult was an important unifying factor in the vastly undergoverned Roman empire. It was mutually beneficial for both Rome and its subjects. Most importantly, it was a focal point for loyalty to Rome and the emperor. For the provincial elites it also provided new opportunities for social advancement. Yet, despite it political significance, the imperial cult should not be simply dismissed as a political tool. In polytheistic Greece, it also did religious significance, since success was treated as commensurate with divine favour and patronage. from http://janusquirinus.org/

To understand the roles played by the imperial cult, it is instructive to focus on the Augustan age, since this is the period when it was introduced and took on new dimensions. Though it took its precedence from the Greek ruler cult, the latter was typically instituted sporadically in one city or another and usually for a particular occasion. But in the Augustan age, the imperial cult appeared everywhere -- in freecities, administrative centres of the provinces and even in settlement without civic status -- and rapidly became the most widespread of all cults [1]. from http://janusquirinus.org/

In the east, the cults and honours for Augustus were mainly spontaneous, and only rarely did Augustus himself or members of his circle take the initiative [2]. Indeed, soon after his victory at Actium, the Greek residents of Bithynia and Asia requested permission to establish his cult [3]. Augustus himself was at first reluctant to accept such honours, perhaps because he did not wish to alienate the Roman aristocracy. Later, he came to see its political value and sanctioned the continuance of the ruler cult in the east by a series of ad hoc directives, and promoted it, albeit cautiously, in the west, where ruler cults had no precedence. For the most part, his worship in the provinces was coupled to that of Roma [Suet. Aug. 52], but in some areas, such as Cyprus, he was worshipped alone [4]. Even in Rome, where overt emperor worship was forbidden, the lower orders were permitted to worship the genius of Augustus at the Lares Compitales, the shrines of the city wards now renamed Lares Augusti [5]. from http://janusquirinus.org/

The important political role of the imperial cult is evident from its establishment first in the newly conquered, un-Romanized provinces before its introduction into the peaceful, relatively Romanised provinces[6]. The cults usual location was in the middle of a city where it was integrated into the centre of religious, political and economic life, such as the round Temple of Roma and Augustus on the Athenian Acropolis very near the Erechtheum and Parthenon [7]. Most importantly, the imperial cult stimulated and focused the loyalty of the provincials to Rome and fostered a sense of belonging, thus unifying the diverse empire. Furthermore, the provincial cult of the divine emperor allowed the promotion of the military and political might of Rome [8]. from http://janusquirinus.org/

In the Augustan age, the imperial cult was even more significant because it consolidated the young and undergoverned empire, mainly by recruiting the support and cooperation of the local elite in the provinces by giving them opportunities for social advancement. In doing so, the imperial cult also reaffirmed the structure of the local power, thus stabilizing the hierarchical order of the provinces, crucial to the stability of the empire. The imperial cult also fostered unity within cities and provinces by involving assemblies of cities and community activities [9]. The extravagant festivals of the imperial cult probably also kept the common people entertained and occupied, much as the bread and circuses did in Rome.

For Augustus himself, as for later emperors, the imperial cult also served to make his position even more important by directing the loyalty to Rome to himself. The close association of himself with Roma in the imperial cult also suggested the inseparability of the emperor from the Roman state. from http://janusquirinus.org/

Complementary to the spread of the imperial cult during this period was the widespread diffusion of the traditional gods of Rome [10], as well as the revival and establish of ancient cults closely identified with Augustus and with his family, notably the cults of Apollo and Mars Ultor. For instance, the Temple of Ares in the Agora in Athens may have been associated with Gaius, the grandson of Augustus, who was hailed as the New Ares in Greece [11]. Elsewhere, the features of Augustus or his family members were often assimilated into those of the gods, such that Jupiter, for instance, would be portrayed as Augustus. Such practices thus further glorify the imperial family. Later, after the death and deification of Augustus, his successors also promoted his cult to justify their positions, just like the way Augustus promoting the cult of the deified Julius Caesar. from http://janusquirinus.org/

However, for the imperial cult to play its important political role, it had to appeal to and be accepted the provincials. In the Greek world, this proved to be effortless, and for the most part, the initiative was with the Greek subjects themselves, and not the Roman administration, as seen by the case of the Greeks in Bithynia and Asia mentioned above. After all, the Greek inhabitants of the eastern provinces were used to ruler cults [12]. Even during the Roman republic, the Greek inhabitants worshipped Roma and the proconsuls [13]. from http://janusquirinus.org/

With the ascension of Augustus, who brought peace and restored order everywhere after years of civil war, there was an irresistible urge to express their respect and gratitude in the familiar tradition of the ruler cult [14] and greet him with the honours usually accorded the Olympian godsand build temples, propylene, sacred precincts, and colonnades for him[Philo Leg. 149-52; cited in Zanker 1988: 297, 298]. This was probably aided by the greater ease with which the Greeks identified with the new monarchy than with the large and continually changing administration of the Republic [15]. from http://janusquirinus.org/

Moreover, the imperial cult provided the opportunity for the provincials to express their allegiance to Rome [16], which would be a shrewd act of diplomatic and political expediency. In Greece too, the provincials themselves were likely to be anxious to eradicate the memory of their support for Antony in the civil war and atone for it by the worship of Augustus [17]. This may explain why there were no less than fifteen altars to Augustus in Athens alone [18]. from http://janusquirinus.org/

Cult worship also created a direct link to the emperor [19], either in the spiritual sense or through actual embassies sent to Rome. This provided the opportunity to receive certain privileges, financial support for building projects, or help in times of need, in the tradition of reciprocal gift giving[20]. It also provided a chance for the city to present itself as an important, well-run, and loyal member of the Empire [21]. Through this, a positive sense of belonging to the Roman Empire would also be cultivated, and reinforced by the prominence and lavishness of the altars of the imperial cult [22]. from http://janusquirinus.org/

Furthermore, these cults also provided the local aristocracy with an opportunity for social advancement, as mentioned. These cults were usually maintained by the Koina, a common assembly of several cities [23], which met annually at the temple of Rome and Augustus to hold a festival, accompanied by games. To manage the festivals associated with the cult, an annual high priest, who usually covered most of the cost, was elected from among the most distinguished and wealthiest members of the local aristocracy of the province. This high priesthood became the highest honour with which a provincial could hold, and the cult became a means of attaching the provincial notables to the Empire and its head [24]. It was also an opportunity for these prominent citizens to show off their own status and how much they could afford to lavish on honours for the emperor and enjoyment for their fellow citizens during their priesthood. Such a competitive spirit thus not only popularized the established imperial cults, but also contributed significantly to its rapid and natural spread [25]. This was further accelerated by the wealthy freedmen in the provinces, who were excluded from holding office. The imperial cult was thus the only means for these men of gaining public recognition and honours [26] and enjoying, if only temporarily, certain prerogatives of public officials [27]. from http://janusquirinus.org/

Also, for these provincials, whether the elite, wealthy freedmen or the common people, who rarely, if ever, had the opportunity to see the emperor, the imperial cult was also a means of coming to terms with his grandeur and power by associating him with the divine [28]. Moreover, the festivals and rituals of the imperial cult were most likely high points in the lives of the common people [29], and imperial feast days were probably particularly important to the poor. from http://janusquirinus.org/

With all these political motives and self-interest behind the imperial cult, it is easy to dismiss it merely as a political institution and overlook its religious significance, or even regard it as fraudulent, as many modern commentators have done, especially in light of modern and Christianising issuing [30]. It must be remembered that in Greek history, no political decision was without religious implications [31]. Worldly success was treated as wholly commensurate with divine favour and patronage [32] and thus, to regard an emperor like Augustus who brought peace and restored order in that light was not unexpected. The Greek apothegms, "What is a god? Wielding of power. What is a king? Like a god" [33] further supports the notion of a divine or semi-divine monarch. from http://janusquirinus.org/

Furthermore, in the Greek religious system which was polytheistic, the pantheon were in perpetual flux, and new cults came into being while old cults waned [34]. This is especially in times of transitions, such as the Augustan age. Moreover, many cults of the Greeks were originated in and were imported from elsewhere [35]. Thus, there was a long established precedence for the Greeks to accept a new cult and place the emperor into their pantheon. Augustus was probably even more easily accepted because he was touted as the son of a god, the deified Julius Caesar [36], or even the son of Apollo [Suet. Aug. 94]. from http://janusquirinus.org/

That Augustus was regarded as truly divine by some Greeks, and not merely worshipped by shrewd provincials hoping to gain from paying homage to him, could be inferred from the sacrifices to him during his lifetime [37], in addition to those for him. As pointed out often in ancient literature, to sacrifice to a man was to treat him as a god [e.g.: Plutarch Lys. 18, as pointed out in Price 1984a: 210]. Furthermore, the choice of the word eusebeia, instead of eunoia, to describe the loyalty to the emperor also indicated that the emperor was placed in the realm of the gods [38]. Other literary descriptions of the imperial cult tend to be more ambiguous, but do not exclude the possibility of the divinity of the emperor. It might be important to note that emperors including Tiberius and Claudius both prohibited sacrifices to themselves [39], which implied that they were treated as gods by at least some of the provincials, and that the ambiguity in the language used to describe the imperial cult arose more from these prohibitions, rather than from a lack of religious belief. After all, epiphanies were not regarded incredulously in the Greek world [40]. from http://janusquirinus.org/

This is not to say that the imperial cult was accepted by everybody as having real religious meaning and that emperors were regarded by everyone as epiphanies of gods. Scepticism about the divinity of the emperor existed, but it must be pointed out that so did scepticism about the gods in general [41]. Even the Roman people, who typically regarded as reluctant to treat a mere mortal as divine, were quick to worship and sacrifice to outstanding Romans, such as the Gracchi brothers after their assassinations[42]. Indeed, Suetonius, who writing almost thirty years after the last Julio-Claudian emperor and thus need not please Augustus or his descendantsseem to believe in the divine powers of Augustus during his lifetime, as reflected in his statement that that Augustus even foreknew the successful conclusion of his wars[Suet. Aug. 96] and his accounts of the deeds of Augustus as a child [Suet. Aug. 94]. The scepticism about the imperial cult then might be mainly derived from a limited number of the aristocracy, especially Roman senators, who had a stake in not treating the emperor as divine. from http://janusquirinus.org/

Thus, the imperial cult, though an important political institution of the Roman empire, widely promoted and accepted because of the political and material benefits, did have religious significance and the emperor was truly have been regarded as divine and accepted as a god by some. from http://janusquirinus.org/

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